This page includes vital information about akathisia that cannot be found in medical journals such as tips for diagnosing akathisia, reasons it is often misdiagnosed as a functional neurological disorder, and about its dangerous subjective symptoms that can only be understood by those who have experienced it. It also contains evidence of akathisia's link to suicide, homicide, and mass shootings with full-text PDFs and excerpts from peer-reviewed literature with references for additional reading.
Thank you for your interest in learning more about akathisia from the Akathisia Alliance for Education and Research nonprofit organization. We have 450+ members, including physicians, scientists, nurses, college professors, and many others from all walks of life who have experienced akathisia and are working together to help prevent others from suffering as we did.
Table of Contents
About Akathisia - In Brief
Although akathisia can occur in Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, and other neurological disorders, it is primarily medication induced and most often occurs when starting, stopping, adjusting dosages, or changing medications. The most frequent offenders are antipsychotics, antidepressants, antibiotics, and anti-nausea medications; however, it has been associated with many others. Akathisia is very common in benzodiazepine withdrawal, especially with rapid cessation after long-term use. It can also result from the withdrawal of opioids and drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.
The "Serious Problem"
“Akathisia is generally underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed, which is a serious problem because it can lead to such adverse outcomes as exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms, aggression, violence, and suicide” (Lohr, et al., 2015).1
Akathisia-Induced Suicide and Homicide
Akathisia was first linked to homicide in 1978 and suicide in 1983. Although only a few cases have been published since, akathisia has been generally misdiagnosed for many decades.
1978: “Violence as a Manifestation of Akathisia” (Keckich)2
Signs and Symptoms of Akathisia
“There are two sides to akathisia. One is outer restlessness that you can observe, but the other, much more important one, is an extraordinary state of terror inside a person” (Glenmullen, 2006).7
Based upon observation in the support groups, a symptom survey was designed and completed by 90 registered members of the Akathisia Alliance who had the sudden onset of akathisia with the first dose of a medication, primarily metoclopramide (Reglan). Each symptom listed below was experienced by 48-98% of those surveyed:
• constant and intense physical restlessness (pacing, rocking, fidgeting, etc.)
• an overwhelming sense of terror (see video below)
• extreme agitation, impatience, and irritability
• racing thoughts with pressured speech
• suicidal and/or violent impulses
• monophobia
• agoraphobia
• subjective neurosensory symptoms such as electrical zaps or bugs crawling under the skin
• depersonalization-derealization
• insomnia
• hypersensitivity to light and sound
Please watch this 1.5-minute video to better understand the crucial difference between anxiety and the terror of akathisia.
Diagnosing Akathisia
Why is akathisia "generally underdiagnosed"?
As evident among the 450+ registered members of the Akathisia Alliance, akathisia is often incorrectly ruled out for the following reasons.
The patient does not exhibit excessive movements.
As noted below, patients with akathisia can present without signs of a movement disorder:
• Akathisia is usually grouped with movement disorders. Yet, it can present as a purely subjective clinical complaint without overt movement abnormalities (Lohr, et al., 2015).8
• The syndrome of akathisia is perhaps the least understood and appreciated side effect of neuroleptic therapy. Because it is primarily an internal sensation, which may not present with any externally visible manifestation, the clinician must be certain to question the patient before ruling out its presence (Schulte, 1985).9
The patient has not taken a medication "known to cause akathisia."
Given that akathisia has been under-diagnosed and under-reported for decades, the current medical literature cannot be a reliable reference. It is, therefore, very possible that there are cases of akathisia due to many medications, supplements, chemicals, and medical conditions that have not been published.
The medication is "out of your system."
In recent years, there has been increasing recognition that akathisia occurs not only as an acute, self-limited complication of dopamine (DA) antagonist treatment, but also as a persistent form called tardive akathisia…. In the 26 patients who were able to discontinue DA antagonists, akathisia persisted for years (mean = 2.7 years, range of 0.3-7 years) until abatement of symptoms or last follow-up.
Why is akathisia so often misdiagnosed as a functional neurological disorder?
It is well-known in the support groups that akathisia is most often misdiagnosed by Neurology as a functional neurological /functional movement disorder (FND/FMD), at least in the milder cases. This is causing significant harm, including increased hopelessness and suicidality.
Please note that the following “rule-in” signs of FND/FMD on clinical assessment are also positive features of akathisia.
The movements of akathisia decrease with distraction.
Motor symptoms appear to be in response to sensory symptoms and decrease with distraction (Factor, 2017).12
The movements of akathisia are suppressible.
Except for the most severe cases, patients are able to voluntarily suppress the movements at least for short periods (Sachdev, 2004).11
The movements of akathisia are variable.
Another feature of the movements is their marked variability over time (Sachdev, 2004).13
Akathisia and the “whack-a-mole” sign
In 2015, Park et al., introduced an FMD assessment technique they referred to as a “whack-a-mole” sign. They state:
In this phenomenon, movement suppression of one body part is followed by immediate reemergence of movement in another. We propose that this phenomenon be referred to as the “whack‐a‐mole” sign. This name is derived from the arcade game whack‐a‐mole, in which a mole, when hit into its original hole, re‐emerges elsewhere.
The whack-a-mole sign will be positive in patients with akathisia as the movements are variable, but the compulsion to move remains constant. Therefore, suppression of movement in one body part will necessitate movement of another.
Akathisia and the functional gait assessment
In “Functional gait disorders: A sign-based approach,” Nonnekes, et al., state:
A commonly observed inconsistency in patients with functional gait disorders resembling ataxia is balance control that is actually much better than what is perceived by the patient. During straight walking, patients may seek support of chairs, doorposts, or walls, but do not actually fall even when such support is absent.
A specific difficulty with tandem gait was reported by 24 out of 28 patients (85%) with akathisia that was not present when supported, as demonstrated in the video below (1.54 minutes). None of the patients reported falling, though they were instructed to abort the test if a fall was imminent.
Akathisia vs. Health Anxiety, Functional Neurological and Factitious Disorders
Patients with symptoms severe enough to cause suicidality may easily meet diagnostic criteria for health anxiety, functional neurological and factitious disorders until they find a doctor who recognizes their akathisia. They will appear to have disproportionate and persistent thoughts about the seriousness of their symptoms, have a persistently high level of anxiety about their symptoms, and spend excessive time devoted to these symptoms. They will do their own research, know the correct medical terms, be eager to have numerous tests performed, and have a history of visiting many doctors and hospitals.
Akathisia and Parkinsonism
Clinical Assessment
There is no consensus regarding which movements, if any, are characteristic of akathisia. In our study, the features that best discriminated akathisia from non-akathisia were: i) shifting weight from foot to foot, or walking on the spot, ii) inability to keep legs still (subjectively), iii) feelings of inner restlessness, and iv) shifting of body position in the chair. However, these features are not present in every patient, and in the milder cases, only the subjective report may be present, at least on a brief examination, and only prolonged observation will reveal any motor disorder. Voluntary movements and effortful tasks tend to reduce the movements of akathisia. The majority of the patients report that akathisic movements are voluntary and in response to subjective distress. Except for the most severe cases, patients are able to voluntarily suppress the movements at least for short periods. A few patients manifest myoclonic jerks of the legs and toes, but these are not prominent features. Tremor of the extremities is not uncommonly associated, and this may be regarded as the co-occurrence of drug-induced parkinsonism. Another feature of the movements is their marked variability over time, and their usual disappearance during sleep.
"The Clinical Challenges of Akathisia"
Additional information about akathisia such as the history, pathophysiology, and treatment, can be found in "The Clinical Challenges of Akathisia" by Lohr, et al. (2015). See references at the end of this page for additional recommended reading.
Medications that can cause or worsen akathisia
References
1. Lohr, J. B., Eidt, C.A., Abdulrazzaq Alfaraj, A., Soliman, M.A. The clinical challenges of akathisia. CNS Spectr. 2015 Dec;20 Suppl 1:1-14; quiz 15-6. doi: 10.1017/S1092852915000838. PMID: 26683525.
2. Keckich, W. A. (1978). Neuroleptics. Violence as a manifestation of akathisia. JAMA, 240(20), 2185. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.240.20.2185
3. Shear, M. K., Frances, A., Weiden, P. (1983). Suicide associated with akathisia and depot fluphenazine treatment. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology, 3(4), 235–236. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004714-198308000-00006
4. Schulte, J. L. (1985). Homicide and suicide associated with akathisia and haloperidol. American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 6(2), 3–7. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/362208
5. Azhar, M., Varma, S. (1992). Akathisia-induced suicidal behaviour. European Psychiatry, 7(5), 239-241. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0924933800003497
6. Lucire, Y., Crotty, C. (2011). Antidepressant-induced akathisia-related homicides associated with diminishing mutations in metabolizing genes of the CYP450 family. Pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine, 4, 65–81. https://doi.org/10.2147/PGPM.S17445
7. Akathisia Alliance for Education and Research. (2019, August 26). Akathisia is Torture [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6eix3cdwoU
8. Lohr, J. B., Eidt, C.A., Abdulrazzaq Alfaraj, A., Soliman, M.A. The clinical challenges of akathisia. CNS Spectr. 2015 Dec;20 Suppl 1:1-14; quiz 15-6. doi: 10.1017/S1092852915000838. PMID: 26683525.
9. Schulte, J. L. (1985). Homicide and suicide associated with akathisia and haloperidol. American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 6(2), 3–7. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/362208
10. Burke, R. E., Kang, U. J., Jankovic, J., Miller, L. G., & Fahn, S. (1989). Tardive akathisia: an analysis of clinical features and response to open therapeutic trials. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 4(2), 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.870040208
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